This document provides a brief description of a program of research that is designed to develop theoretically based and research validated principles to guide the design of training and learning systems in organizations. The goal is to enhance the development of adaptive individuals and teams. Many critical activities, such as air traffic control, industrial process control, and military command and control, are accomplished by individuals and teams interacting through complex, technology mediated systems. These task environments, characterized as dynamic decision making (DDM) situations, place high demands on the skills and capabilities of operators. DDM tasks are dynamic, ambiguous, and emergent, necessitating rapid assessment of the situation as it unfolds, diagnosis and prioritization of possible actions, and implementation of appropriate task strategies. DDM tasks place heavy demands on decision makers, necessitating high levels of expertise to enable the strategic action and adaptability required for effective performance.

The purpose of training is to create a set of guided experiences that help the novice begin developing the characteristics that underlie expertise for a given task domain. Training does not create experts per se, but it should lay the foundation for the development of underlying capabilities during the early skill acquisition process. There is a substantial literature on the characteristics of expertise, and cognitive learning theories that specify the development of expertise, although relatively little is known about how the implications of this work can aid the design of training. This is particularly true for complex tasks, such as those in DDM situations.

Clearly, there is a need to improve training for individuals and teams who operate in DDM environments in order to provide them with the capabilities needed to assess, coordinate, and adapt. Although on the surface this is seemingly straightforward, designing training systems that develop individual experts and meld expert teams is actually quite challenging. There is little guidance in the traditional training literature regarding how this can be accomplished. Yet, there are substantial psychological literatures that address cognitive processes relevant to individual decision-making, expertise, and learning, and literatures in organizational science that address leadership, socialization, and team development. Until recently, these literatures have had virtually no influence on the design of training systems for complex tasks, or for the development of expert teams.

The key to improved training for adaptive performance is to integrate the implications of basic psychological theory and research, with the application demands posed by training for DDM task situations. Three integrative frameworks that each address one aspect of this general problem area have been developed: (1) active learning design strategies, (2) the role of leaders and instructors, and (3) the process of team learning and development. Each theoretical framework represents an effort to identify key theoretical issues and constraints, derive generalizable psychological principles, and apply the principles to the problem context to generate guidelines to enhance training design, learning, and skill development. New research on (a) embedded and remote training systems and (b) team adaptive performance endeavors to build on prior efforts, further specify the principles, and establish their generalizability to applied settings.

Although this research is particularly relevant to training for military command and control applications because of their high requirements for DDM skills, the same essential issues with respect to training, learning, and adaptability are directly applicable to most organizational settings. This will be increasingly so with the advent of virtual teams and organizations—linked together by advanced information and communication technologies—but widely distributed in space and time. Thus, embedded, deployable, and adaptive training strategies are likely to have wide applicability across a range of work settings. Organizations are increasingly demanding training that is on-line, flexible, and delivered just-in-time. Enhancing these capabilities is the goal of this research stream.

This summary provides a brief listing that documents the theoretical foundation, experimental paradigm, and initial empirical research efforts. An overview of the theoretical frameworks is described in:

Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1998). Training and developing adaptive teams: Theory, principles, and research. In J. A. Cannon-Bowers & E. Salas (Eds.), Decision making under stress: Implications for training and simulation (pp. 115-153). Washington, DC: APA Books.

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THEORETICAL FOUNDATION

Training Design Principles for Adaptive Expertise

Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Ford, J. K. Guidelines for training transfer, retention, and skill enhancement for tactical decision-making. Naval Training Systems Center (N61339-91-C-0117). September 1991 to May 1993. [$95,949 total costs]

Teams composed of highly specialized, distributed, individual decision makers are central to many critical functions performed in man/machine systems. The development of the skills and expertise required of individuals staffing such systems is heavily dependent on an effective training system. The current state-of-the-art in training research focuses primarily on individual skill development, but continues to neglect issues relevant to the training of teams of decision makers (TDM). Given the critical role of TDM in technology systems, the derivation of training concepts relevant to teams is essential for the development of effective TDM training systems. This project examined the training literature, extracted principles with potential applicability to TDM training, and extrapolated those principles into operationally relevant training guidelines for decision making teams.

A conceptual model relevant to TDM training was developed. The model viewed TDM training as a dynamic system that (a) must include a developmental sequence across multiple training environments, and (b) must optimize the development of task specific and team process skills across the training sequence. Training concepts and principles were derived from the literature in instructional psychology, cognitive psychology, and industrial and organizational psychology. The conceptual model was then utilized to translate principles into guidelines for training TDM teams.

This project provided a foundation for my perspective on enhancing skill acquisition for complex tasks. A central focus of this perspective is the need to develop skills that are flexible and adaptive rather than rote. Several theoretical products have described and elaborated this perspective.

Theory

Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1995). Enhancing the training and development of adaptive expertise. Psychological Science Agenda, 8 (5), 7-9.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., Brown, K. G., Weissbein, D., Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (2000). A multilevel approach to training effectiveness: Enhancing horizontal and vertical transfer. In K. J. Klein & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 157-210). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., Ford, J. K., & Smith, E. M. (1993). Training concepts, principles, and guidelines for the acquisition, transfer, and enhancement of team tactical decision making skills I: A conceptual framework and literature review (Contract No. N61339-91-C-0117). Orlando, FL: Naval Training Systems Center.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Salas, E. (1997). An organizational systems approach for the implementation and transfer of training. In J. K. Ford and Associates (Eds.), Improving training effectiveness in work organizations (pp.247-287). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Smith, E. M., Ford, J. K., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1997). Building adaptive expertise: Implications for training design. In M. A. Quinones & A. Dudda (Eds.), Training for a rapidly changing workplace: Applications of psychological research (pp.89-118). Washington, DC: APA Books.

Smith, E. M., Smith, M. R., Futch, C. J., Ford, J. K., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1993). Training concepts, principles, and guidelines for the acquisition, transfer, and enhancement of team tactical decision making skills II: An annotated bibliography (Contract No. N61339-91-C-0117). Orlando, FL: Naval Training Systems Center.

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Leadership, Team Development, and Adaptation

Kozlowski, S. W. J. Training leadership skills to enhance team tactical decision making. U.S. Army Research Office (DAAL03-86-D-0001, 2666). May 1991 to June 1993. [$37,676 direct costs]

Kozlowski, S. W. J. Composition of team mental models. AURIG, Michigan State University, May 1994 to August 1995. [$14,997 direct costs]

Kozlowski, S. W. J. Specifying instructional content for enhancing team leadership and TDM performance. U.S. Army Research Office (DAAL03-91-C-0034, 93367). July 1993 to January 1996. [$66,772 direct costs]

Klein, K. J., Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Xiao, Y. Leadership: Enhancing team adaptability in dynamic settings. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (1435-04-03-CT-71272 / Z856402). January 2003 to September 2005 [$699,878 total costs; $241,141 for research at Michigan State University].

Whereas the prior project focused primarily on formal training systems, this series of conceptual projects focused on natural training opportunities and experiences that occur or can be created in on-going work contexts. The central thesis is that teamwork skills essential in complex task environments need to be developed in context, forcing a reconceptualization of the training system—a reconceptualization that pushes training into the work environment, and places a greater emphasis on the responsibility of the leader and the team for learning and development.

The role of team leaders in the development of coordinated, adaptive, and effective teams is not well defined in the literature, and it is difficult to apply prescriptions from existing leadership research to teams operating in complex and dynamic decision-making environments. Primary limitations of existing frameworks include their lack of conceptual grounding in the defining characteristics of the team context, insensitivity to developmental processes that unfold over time, and neglect of team-level, cyclical dynamics in task complexity and workload. This work develops an integrated conceptual framework that addresses these issues. The theory considers leadership in the context of "action teams;" that is, those teams that are comprised of individual specialists who must coordinate their activities in response to complex, rapidly unfolding, real-time events. It addresses the role of the leader during the compilation of a collection of individuals into an adaptable and flexible team, and identifies leader role activities in response to variations in the team task cycles. Testable propositions are derived that specify leader actions consistent with team developmental progress and variations in task contingencies. In addition, theoretically derived principles and guidelines for leaders are developed. New research support from the Army Research Institute (2003) will extend this initial theoretical work to develop a theory of dynamic leadership and to conduct a series of empirical studies to evaluate basic propositions.

Theory

Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2004, December). Team development and leadership: Learning, regulation, and adaptability. Invited talk, Moving Toward the Next Frontier in Team Effectiveness Research, sponsored by the Army Research Institute and the University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., Watola, D. J., Nowakowski, J. M., Kim, B. H., & Botero, I. C. (2004, April). A functional theory of dynamic and adaptive leadership. In S. W. J. Kozlowski (Chair), An exploration of the dynamics of adaptive leadership. Symposium presented at the 19^th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Chicago, IL.

Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2002). Virtual teams: Implications for leadership. Group and Organization Management, 27, 12-49.

Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2000, April). The role of leadership in the development of adaptive teams. In R. Wageman & R. J. Hackman (Chairs), Perspectives on team coaching. Symposium presented at the 15th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, New Orleans, LA.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., Gully, S. M., McHugh, P. P., Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (1996). A dynamic theory of leadership and team effectiveness: Developmental and task contingent leader roles. In G. R. Ferris (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resource management (Vol. 14, pp. 253-305). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., Gully, S. M., Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (1996). Team leadership and development: Theory, principles, and guidelines for training leaders and teams. In M. Beyerlein, D. Johnson, & S. Beyerlein (Eds.), Advances in interdisciplinary studies of work teams: Team leadership (Vol. 3, pp. 251-289). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

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Distributed Training, Active Learning, and Embedded Training Systems

Kozlowski, S. W. J. Instructional principles for the design of distributed training systems. Battelle Scientific Services Program (TCN 00156, DO 0659). September 2000 to March 2002 [$36,379 direct costs].

Kozlowski, S. W. J. Guiding the development of deployable shipboard training systems: Enhancing skill acquisition, adaptability, and effectiveness. Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division (N61339-96-K-0005). May 1996 to May 2000. [$362,980 total costs]

This project represents an effort to integrate the key theoretical features of prior programmatic work. The complex, dynamic, and emergent nature of decision making in modern command and control systems places extraordinary demands on the expertise and adaptability of individuals and teams. Paradoxically, technological advances in computerized command and control systems are likely to increase the levels of skills and adaptability required of human decision makers, placing additional demands on training systems which must deliver these high level skills. At the same time, pressures to reduce costs and improve efficiency will create demands to shift more and more of the learning and skill acquisition process to the workplace. Current training theory, research, and practice provide little solid guidance for the design of reliable, efficient, and effective training capabilities that can be embedded in technology systems and deployed into work environments.

Embedded, technology based training systems that can enhance adaptive expertise and teamwork present several application challenges. They must be able to enhance the acquisition of complex skills that underlie strategic action and adaptability. The systems must have the flexibility to change instructional focus as individual and team skills develop. They must also allow leaders to customize and adapt the training to provide skills that are needed for current or anticipated situations. And, the systems must offer ease of implementation and use, with the potential to be remotely deployed or distributed.

The purpose of this research is to fill the gap between current training theory and research, and the application challenges associated with embedded, deployable training systems. The research builds upon efforts that have successfully developed and derived training design principles for complex skill acquisition relevant for individual specialists and teams. A theoretical framework based on self-regulation processes provides the conceptual foundation guiding the research. The basic approach research strategy develops interventions designed to selectively influence the focus of regulatory activity during learning, while also modeling the interplay of individual differences in cognitive abilities and relevant dispositions (i.e., goal orientations) that may influence how learners respond to the interventions. Antecedent influences on learning processes are modeled over time and effects on skill retention and performance adaptation are examined.

Theory

Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Bell, B. S. (in progress). Active learning systems: Core elements and training design imperatives. Manuscript in preparation.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Bell. B. S. (in press). A theory-based approach for designing distributed learning systems. In S. M. Fiore E. & Salas (Eds.), Where is the learning in distance learning? Toward a science of distributed learning and training. Washington, DC: APA Books.

Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2003, February). Active learning: Enhancing regulatory processes, learning, and performance. Colloquium presented at the Department of Psychology Distinguished Speaker Series, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2003, April). Using science to enhance the design of remote learning systems. In S. W. J. Kozlowski (Chair), Getting learning into web-based, distance, and distributed training. Panel Discussion presented at the 18th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Orlando, Florida.

Kozlowski, S. W. J. & Bell, B. B. (2002). Enhancing the effectiveness of distance learning and distributed training: A theoretical framework for the design of remote learning systems. (Final Report; Contract No. DAAH04-96-C-0086, TCN: 00156). Research Triangle Park, NC: Battelle Scientific Services.

Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2002, October). Active learning systems: Enhancing self-regulation, learning, and adaptive performance. Colloquium presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Organizational Behavior, Atlanta, GA.

Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2001, June). Skills for the 21^st century: Developing adaptability. Keynote address presented at the 4^th Biennial National Conference on Industrial and Organisational Psychology, Sydney, Australia.

Kozlowski, S. W. J. & Bell, B. B. (2000). Guiding the development of shipboard training systems. (Summary Project Report; Contract No. N61339-96-K-0005). Orlando, FL: Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., Bell, B. B., & Mullins, M. E. (2000). Guiding the development of deployable shipboard training systems: Enhancing skill acquisition, adaptability, and effectiveness (Final Report 3; Contract No. N61339-96-K-0005). Orlando, FL: Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., Toney, R. J., Mullins, M. E., Bell, B. B., & Weissbein, D. A. (1998). Guiding the development of deployable shipboard training systems: Enhancing skill acquisition, adaptability, and effectiveness (Final Report 2.1; Contract No. N61339-96-K-0005). Orlando, FL: Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division.

Kozlowski, S. W .J., Toney, R. J., Mullins, M. E., Weissbein, D. A., Brown, K. G., & Bell, B. S. (2001). Developing adaptability: A theory for the design of integrated-embedded training systems. In E. Salas (Ed.), Advances in human performance and cognitive engineering research (Vol. 1, pp. 59-123). Amsterdam: JAI/Elsevier Science.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., Toney, R. J., Weissbein, D. A., Mullins, M. E., Brown, K. G., & Bell, B. S. (1998, April). Training adaptive performance. In S. W. J. Kozlowski, S. K. Parker, & M. Frese (Chairs), Beyond task performance: Proactivity and learning. Symposium conducted at the 13th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Dallas, TX.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., Weissbein, D. A., Brown, K. G., Toney, R. J., & Mullins, M. E. (1997). Guiding the development of deployable shipboard training systems: Enhancing skill acquisition, adaptability, and effectiveness (Final Report 1.1; Contract No. N61339-96-K-0005). Orlando, FL: Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division.

Mullins, M. E., Toney, R. J., Brown, K. G., Weissbein, D. A., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1997). The development of deployable shipboard training systems: An annotated bibliography and training principles (Final Report 1.2; Contract No. N61339-96-K-0005). Orlando, FL: Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division.

Empirical Research

Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (in progress). Core elements of active learning: Instruction, motivation, and affect control effects on self-regulated learning, performance, and adaptability. Manuscript in preparation.

Bell, B. S., Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Nowakowski, J. M. (2004, April). An examination of the influence of enduring and transitory individual differences on training effectiveness. In B. S. Bell (Chair), Advances in research on individual differences in training contexts. Symposium presented at the 19^th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Chicago, IL.

Nowakowski, J. M., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2004, April). Goal orientation and feedback seeking during learning: Processes and prospects. In B. S. Bell (Chair), Advances in research on individual differences in training contexts. Symposium presented at the 19^th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Chicago, IL.

Bell, B. S. & Kozlowski, & S. W. J. (2003, April). An examination of the instructional, motivational, and emotional elements of active learning. In B. S. Bell & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Chairs), Active learning: Critical elements, instructional supports, and learning processes. Symposium presented at the 18th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Orlando, Florida.

Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2002). Adaptive guidance: Enhancing self-regulation, knowledge and performance in technology-based training. Personnel Psychology, 55, 267-306.

Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2002). Goal orientation and ability: Interactive effects on self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 497-505.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., Gully, S. M., Brown, K. G., Salas, E., Smith, E. A., & Nason, E. R. (2001). Effects of training goals and goal orientation traits on multi-dimensional training outcomes and performance adaptability. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 85, 1-31.

Bell, B. S., Kozlowski, S. W. J., Dobbins, H. W. (2002, April). Effects of learning frame, goal content, and goal sequence on learning processes and training outcomes. In S. W. J. Kozlowski (Chair), Advances in training effectiveness: Traits, states, learning processes, and outcomes. Symposium presented at the 17th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Dobbins, H. W., Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2002, April). A comparison of the Button and VandeWalle goal orientation measures. Paper presented at the 17th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Mullins, M. E., Devendorf, S. A., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2002, April). Modes of measuring self-regulation: Appropriate assessment of the construct? Paper presented at the 17th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Bell, B. S., Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Dobbins, H. (2001, April). Creating the balanced learner: Interactive effects of goals and goal orientation on multiple training outcomes. In K. Smith-Jentch & L. Rhodenizer (Chairs), When do learning and performance orientations enhance learning outcomes?: Interactions with individual and contextual variables. Symposium to be presented at the 16th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego, CA.

Bell, B. S, & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2000, April). Goal orientation and ability: Interactive effects on affective, cognitive, and behavioral training outcomes. In K. A. Smith-Jentsch (Chair), Goal orientation, training processes, and outcomes. Symposium presented at the 15th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, New Orleans, LA.

Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2000, April). Guiding individuals through training: The effects of behavioral and cognitive guidance in a complex training environment. In S. W. J. Kozlowski (Chair), Developing complex adaptive skills: Individual‑ and team‑level training strategies. Symposium presented at the 15th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, New Orleans, LA.

Bell, B. S., Mullins, M. E., Toney, R. J., Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1999, April). Goal orientation: Elaborating the effects of state and trait conceptualizations. In S. L. Fisher & J. M. Beaubien (Chairs), Goal orientation: Expanding the nomological network. Symposium conducted at the 14th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Atlanta, GA.

Brown, K. G., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1997, April). Self-evaluation and training outcomes: Training strategy and goal orientation effects. Paper presented at the 12th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, St. Louis, MO.

Brown, K. G., Mullins, M. E., Weissbein, D. A., Toney, R. J., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1997, April). Mastery goals and strategic reflection: Preliminary evidence for learning interference. In S. W. J. Kozlowski (Chair), Metacognition in training: Lessons learned from stimulating cognitive reflection. Symposium conducted at the 12th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, St. Louis, MO.

Gully, S. M., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1996, August). The influence of self-efficacy and team-efficacy on training outcomes in a team training context. In J. George-Flavey (Chair), Defining, measuring, and influencing group level efficacy beliefs. Symposium conducted at the 56th Annual Convention of the Academy of Management Association, Cincinnati, OH.

Mullins, M. E., Brown, K. G., Toney, R. J., Weissbein, D. A., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1998, April). Individual differences, self-efficacy, and training outcomes. In S. M. Gully & J. E. Mathieu (Chairs), Individual differences, learning, motivation, and training outcomes. Symposium conducted at the 13th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Dallas, TX.

Mullins, M. E., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2000, April). Declarative and strategic knowledge: Effects on transfer of training. In J. A. Cannon-Bowers (Chair), The cognitive basis of training. Symposium presented at the 15th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, New Orleans, LA.

Mullins, M. E., Kozlowski, S. W. J., Toney, R. J., Brown, K. G., Weissbein, D. A., & Bell, B. S. (1999, April). Adaptive performance: Mastery versus performance goals and feedback consistency. Paper presented at the 14th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Atlanta, GA.

Schmidt, A. M., Chambers, B. A., Kozlowski, S. W. J., & DeShon, R. P. (2001, April). Can I do it and do I care? Examining the antecedents of state goal orientation. In K. Smith-Jentch & L. Rhodenizer (Chairs), When do learning and performance orientations enhance learning outcomes?: Interactions with individual and contextual variables. Symposium to be presented at the 16th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego, CA.

Toney, R. J., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1999, April). Shifting feedback from positive to negative: Benefits of evaluative feedback on learning and training performance. In S. M. Gully & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Chairs), Learning to fail or failing to learn? The role of errors, failures, and feedback in learning environments. Symposium conducted at the 14th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Atlanta, GA.

Toney, R. J., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2000, April). Contribution of goal orientation to discrepancies between goals and performance. In K. A. Smith-Jentsch (Chair), Goal orientation, training processes, and outcomes. Symposium presented at the 15th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, New Orleans, LA.

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Team Development and Adaptive Performance

Kozlowski, S. W. J., & DeShon, R. P. Dynamic resource allocation and adaptability in teamwork. Air Force Office of Scientific Research (FA9550-05-1-0065). January 2005 to December 2007 [$440,000 total costs].

Kozlowski, S. W. J., & DeShon, R. P. Enhancing learning, performance, and adaptability. Air Force Office of Scientific Research (F49620-01-1-0283). May 2001 to December 2004 [$805,738 total costs].

Kozlowski, S. W. J., & DeShon, R. P. A network-based approach to team situational awareness, coordination, and adaptive performance. Air Force Office of Scientific Research (F49620-98-1-0363). April 1998 to May 2001. [$537,730 total costs]

Adaptive performance is central to team effectiveness in complex dynamic decision-making (DDM) task environments. DDM situations are dynamic, ambiguous, and emergent, creating demands for rapid assessment of the situation, prioritization of action, and implementation of task strategies. As the situation evolves, priorities and strategies must be modified on-the-fly. Team effectiveness hinges on the ability of team members to collectively assess the situation, coordinate their individual performances, and adapt to meet shifting situational contingencies.

This research is designed to advance understanding of fundamental principles of human learning and team processes that underlie adaptability. Its goal is to develop principles for training adaptive performance skills quickly, efficiently, and effectively. These principles are intended to provide a basis to guide the design of instructional tools and simulation systems for training DDM teams, and specify instructional capabilities that can be embedded in operational systems to enable training anytime and anywhere. From both scientific and practical perspectives, the key research problems are (a) modeling the processes of individual and team learning that yield adaptive performance and (b) identifying antecedents that influence its development. Both problems are virtually uncharted in the literature. First, although there is a substantial literature on learning and instructional design, it is primarily based on research using simple tasks. It provides little insight into training for complex, dynamic, cognitively loaded DDM tasks where adaptability is at a premium. Second, although there is an emerging empirical literature on team training design, team training largely consists of putting teams together to practice with the faith that they will develop the necessary skills to successfully coordinate their individual performances. The objective of this research program is focused on understanding the process of team learning and performance adaptability, and developing instructional tools to promote it.

The research combines three theoretical foundations. First, the fundamental psychological mechanisms underlying cognitive, behavioral, and affective self-regulation provide a means to model individual learning and performance. Second, theories of instructional design provide a basis to develop training strategies with the potential to influence these core psychological constructs and processes. Third, team learning, performance, and adaptability represent a multilevel process that necessitates research attention to not just the individual or the team, but to both the individual and team levels. By applying multilevel theory, we develop parallel analogues of individual regulatory processes at the team level. There is virtually no extant theory or research on team-regulation. Our research goals are to (a) create measurement tools to model team-regulation, (b) examine the interface between individual and team regulation, (c) identify antecedents that affect regulatory processes (i.e., individual differences, team characteristics, and situational demands), and (d) map effects on learning and adaptability at the individual and team levels. This work is in progress.

Theory

Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Bell, B. S. (2004). Work teams. In C. Spielberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of applied psychology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Kozlowski, S. W. J. & DeShon, R. P. (2004). A psychological fidelity approach to simulation-based training: Theory, research, and principles. In E. Salas, L. R. Elliott, S. G. Schflett, & M. D. Coovert (Eds.), Scaled Worlds: Development, validation, and applications (pp. 75-99). Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Bell, B. S. (2003). Work groups and teams in organizations. In W. C. Borman, D. R. Ilgen, & R. J. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 12, pp. 333-375). London: Wiley.

Kozlowski, S. W. J. & DeShon, R. P. (2001). Developing adaptive teams: Learning processes, training strategies, and performance adaptability. (Final Report, Grant No. F49620-98-1-0363). Arlington, VA: Air Force Office of Scientific Research.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., Gully, S. M., Nason, E. R., & Smith, E. M. (1999). Developing adaptive teams: A theory of compilation and performance across levels and time. In D. R. Ilgen & E. D. Pulakos (Eds.), The changing nature of work performance: Implications for staffing, personnel actions, and development (pp. 240-292). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Empirical Research

DeShon, R. P., Kozlowski, S. W. J., Schmidt, A. M., Milner, K. R., & Wiechmann, D. (2004). A multiple goal, multilevel model of feedback effects on the regulation of individual and team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 1035-1056.

DeShon, R. P., Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Schmidt, A. M. (2003, August). A multiphase, repeated measures model of team development. In G. Chen (Chair), The changing nature of performance revisited: New extensions, levels, and directions. Symposium presented at the 63rd Annual Convention of the Academy of Management Association, Seattle, WA.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., DeShon, R. P., & Schmidt, A. M. (2003, August). A multilevel model of self- and team regulation during complex skill acquisition. In H. Liao & A. Joshi (Chairs), Through a multilevel perspective: Understanding individual and team performance. Symposium presented at the 63rd Annual Convention of the Academy of Management Association, Seattle, WA.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., DeShon, R. P., Schmidt, A. M., Milner, K. R., & Wiechmann, D. (2003, May). A multilevel, multiple goal model of self- and team regulation during complex skill acquisition. In V.Gonzalez-Roma (Chair), Diversity and agreement in teams. Symposium presented at the 11th European Congress on Work and Organizational Psychology, Lisbon, Portugal.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., DeShon, R. P., Schmidt, A. M., & Chambers, B. A. (2003, April). Trait, goal, and feedback effects on individual and team regulatory processes. In B. S. Bell & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Chairs), Active learning: Critical elements, instructional supports, and learning processes. Symposium presented at the 18th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Orlando, Florida.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., DeShon, R. P., Schmidt, A. M., & Chambers, B. A. (2002, April). Effects of feedback and goal orientation on individual and team regulation, learning, and performance. In S. W. J. Kozlowski (Chair), Advances in training effectiveness: Traits, states, learning processes, and outcomes. Symposium presented at the 17th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

DeShon, R. P., Kozlowski, S. W. J., Schmidt, A. M., Wiechmann, D., & Milner, K. R. (2001, April). Developing team adaptability: Shifting regulatory focus across levels. In S. W. J. Kozlowski & R. P. DeShon (Chairs), Enhancing team performance: Emerging theory, instructional strategies, and evidence. Symposium presented at the 16th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego, CA.

DeShon, R. P., Kozlowski, S. W. J., Wiechmann, D., Milner, K. R., Davis, C. A., & Schmidt, A. M. (2000, April). Training and developing adaptive performance in teams and individuals. In S. W. J. Kozlowski (Chair), Developing complex adaptive skills: Individual‑ and team‑level training strategies. Symposium presented at the 15th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, New Orleans, LA.

DeShon, R. P., Milner, K. R., Kozlowski, S. W. J., Toney, R. J., Schmidt, A., Wiechmann, D., & Davis, C. (1999, April). The effects of team goal orientation on individual and team performance. In D. Steele-Johnson (Chair), New Directions in goal orientation research: Extending the construct, the nomological net, and analytic methods. Symposium conducted at the 14th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Atlanta, GA.

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EXPERIMENTAL PLATFORM AND PARADIGM

Kozlowski, S. W. J., & DeShon, R. P. (1999, June). TEAMSim: Examining the development of basic, strategic, and adaptive performance. Presented at the International Synthetic Task Development Conference/Scaled Worlds: Current Issues in Simulation-Based Human Performance Research, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Gully, S. M. (1996, August). TEAMS/TANDEM: Examining skill acquisition, adaptability, and effectiveness. In J. Vancouver & A. Williams (Chairs), Using computer simulations to study complex organizational behavior. Symposium conducted at the Annual Convention of the Academy of Management Association, Cincinnati, OH.

Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1996, March). TEAMS/TANDEM: An experimental platform for examining skill acquisition, adaptability, and effectiveness at individual and team levels of analysis. Presented at the Personnel Human Resource Research Group, Gainesville, FL.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Gully, S. M. (1995, June). TEAMS/TANDEM: A simulation for examining team training and adaptive expertise. Presented to the Crew Technology Group, U.S. Air Force Armstrong Laboratory, San Antonio, TX.

The research program utilizes an adaptation of a PC-based radar tracking simulation modified to meet specifications for an experimental platform that can examine learning and skill acquisition for complex tasks at the individual and team levels of analysis. Modifications include improved control of target configuration and movement, flexibility of experimental design features, and more powerful data representation and management. The modified simulation is designated TEAMSim (Team Event-Based Adaptive Multilevel Simulation).

The task enacts a dynamic information-processing and decision-making environment by simulating a radar tracking task. Trainees are seated at a simulated radar console that presents multiple contacts that dynamically interact according to an event-based, scripted scenario. The basic task is to "hook" a contact, identify its essential characteristics by accessing cues, and, based on those characteristics, determine its final disposition. This task requires the trainee to collect up to five cues for each of three component decisions (fifteen cues overall) concerning the hooked target.

Effective performance on TEAMSim requires that trainees learn the behavioral skills required to operate various features of the equipment such as hooking targets, accessing cue menus, and changing" the range of their sensors. They must also acquire basic knowledge required to process information and make decisions including (a) the information cue combinations for target identification and (b) the structure of the underlying decision model. In addition, and of particular relevance to our research, TEAMSim scenarios are event-based. This allows complex task relations to be embedded in the scenario design, necessitating shifts in trainee task priorities, strategies, and resource allocation. This feature provides an essential experimental capability for evaluating training design principles for complex, adaptive performance at the individual and team levels of analysis.

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End of Summary